Article Semantics in Second Language Acquisition
T. R. Ionin, 2003
This thesis examines article choice and parameter-setting in second language (L2) acquisition. It argues, on the basis of L2-English elicitation and production data, that L2-learners have access to UG-based semantic distinctions governing article choice, but do not know which distinction is appropriate for English. A Fluctuation Hypothesis (FH) is proposed, according to which L2-learners fluctuate between different parameter settings until the input leads them to set the parameter to the target value.
The thesis proposes that articles cross-linguistically may encode definiteness or specificity. The definition of specificity that is adopted is based on Fodor and Sag’s (1982) view of specificity as speaker intent to refer. The behavior of referential this, a specificity marker in colloquial English, is examined, and it is proposed that the definition of specificity incorporates the concept of noteworthy property. An Article Choice Parameter is next proposed, which governs whether articles in a given language are distinguished on the basis of definiteness or on the basis of specificity. While English has the Definiteness setting of this parameter, it is suggested, on the basis of data from Mosel and Hovdhaugen (1992), that Samoan has the Specificity setting.
It is hypothesized, in accordance with the FH, that L2-learners fluctuate between the two settings of the Article Choice Parameter. This hypothesis leads to the prediction that L2-English errors of article use should come in two types: overuse of the with specific indefinites and overuse of a with non-specific indefinites. These predictions are examined in a series of studies with adult speakers of Russian and Korean, two languages with no articles. The empirical data confirm the predictions, and show that L2-English article choice is not random but reflects access to the two settings of the Article Choice Parameter. The same patterns of results are found for L1-Russian and L1-Korean speakers, and it is shown that the results are not attributable to L1-transfer.
On the basis of these findings, it is concluded that L2-learners have direct UG-access to semantic distinctions underlying article choice. The data also provide evidence for the existence of a specificity distinction which cross-cuts the definiteness distinction.
Thesis Supervisor: Kenneth Wexler
Title: Professor of Psychology and Linguistics
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction
1 Goals of this dissertation 11
2 Some background: Universal Grammar in L2-acquisition 11
2.1 Models of L2-acquisition: UG access 12
2.2 The role of transfer in L2-acquisition 15
2.3 Access to non-L1/non-L2 parameter settings in
L2-acquisition 17
2.4 Summary: parameter-setting in L2-acquisition 20
2.5 Optionality in parameter-setting 21
3 The proposal: fluctuation in L2-acquisition 23
3.1 The specifics of the FH 23
3.2 Sources of errors in L2-acquisition and the FH 24
3.3 The FH and article choice 30
4 Overview of this thesis 31
Chapter 2 Article Semantics
1 Introduction 32
2 Definiteness: an overview 32
2.1 The Russellian analysis of definites 33
2.2 The Fregean analysis of definites 33
2.3 The quantificational analysis of indefinites 35
3 Scope: an overview 36
3.1 Scope in indefinites and definites 36
3.2 Scope and parametric variation 38
4 Referentiality: an overview 40
4.1 The ambiguity of the English indefinite 41
4.2 The ambiguity of the English definite 50
5 The proposal: specificity as noteworthiness 52
5.1 Conditions on the use of this-indefinites 53
5.2 The specifics of specificity 56
5.3 Noteworthiness and definites 62
5.4 Definiteness and specificity in the English article system 64
6 Specificity and definiteness cross-linguistically 67
6.1 Positive vs. negative feature specifications 68
6.2 Two-article languages: definiteness vs. specificity
distinctions 69
6.3 Three- and four-article languages and specificity marking 73
6.4 Specificity, presuppositionality, and case marking 76
7 The Article Choice Parameter 79
7.1 Lexical specifications of articles as parameter values 79
7.2 Article choice, presuppositionality, and genericity 80
7.3 Article choice, scope, and licensing conditions on articles 81
8 Conclusion: articles in acquisition 83
Chapter 3 Articles in L1 and L2 Acquisition
1 Introduction 85
2 The Article Choice Parameter and L2-acquisition 85
2.1 The FH for article choice in L2-acquisition 85
2.2 Predictions for article use in L2-English 87
2.3 The Article Choice Parameter and triggers 87
2.4 The FH and L1-acquisition 88
3 Early studies of article choice in L1-acquisition 88
3.1 Study design 89
3.2 Results 90
3.3 Different explanations of article errors in child English 91
3.4 Maratsos’s findings and the FH 94
4 Later studies of article choice in L1-acquisition 97
4.1 Article choice with different types of indefinites in child
English 97
4.2 Child English vs. adult Salish 99
4.3 Summary: article choice in child English 102
5 Previous studies of article choice in adult L2-acquisition 103
5.1 L2-English article use in the Bickertonian framework 103
5.2 L2-English article choice and partitivity 106
5.3 Overuse of a in L2-English 106
5.4 Summary: L2-English article choice and the FH 107
6 L2-English article use and transfer 107
6.1 Definiteness and specificity in Russian 108
6.2 Definiteness and specificity in Korean 113
6.3 Summary 114
7 Conclusion 114
Chapter 4 Experiment 1
1 Background and predictions 115
1.1 Hypothesis 116
1.2 Predictions 116
2 Methods 117
2.1 Participants 117
2.2 Standard methodology for chapters 4 through 6 117
2.3 Tasks 119
3 Results 123
3.1 RC-comprehension and article choice 123
3.2 Performance in individual contexts 125
3.3 Statistical comparisons 125
3.4 Individual patterns of article choice 126
3.5 Overall proficiency and article use 128
4 Discussion 129
4.1 Article choice and fluctuation 129
4.2 Triggers and the Article Choice parameter 130
5 Conclusions and remaining questions 131
5.1 A greater variety of contexts 131
5.2 An alternative explanation 131
5.3 The question of transfer 132
Chapter 5 Experiment 2
1 Background and predictions 133
1.1 Predictions for L2-English article choice 134
1.2 Predictions for individual results 134
2 Methods 135
2.1 Participants 135
2.2 Tasks 136
2.3 Procedure 140
3 Results 140
3.1 Overall results and proficiency levels 140
3.2 Article choice with singular DPs 142
3.3 Article choice and number 143
3.4 Article choice and effects of L1 146
3.5 Effects of other variables on article choice 146
3.6 Individual results of intermediate/advanced L2-learners 147
3.7 Results of beginner L2-learners 149
4 Discussion 149
4.1 Singular contexts and the degree of specificity 150
4.2 Performance in plural contexts 151
4.3 Group differences 151
4.4 Individual results 152
5 Conclusion 153
Chapter 6 Experiment 3
1 Background and predictions 154
1.1 The Fluctuation Hypothesis and definites 154
1.2 Indefinites and the degree of specificity 156
1.3 The role of certain 158
1.4 Summary 159
1.5 Predictions for individual results 159
2 Methods 160
2.1 Participants 160
2.2 Tasks 161
2.3 Procedure 168
3 Results 168
3.1 Results of the control participants 168
3.2 L2-learners: summary of results 169
3.3 Specificity with definites and indefinites: the results 172
3.4 Performance on different indefinite contexts 181
3.5 Individual results: intermediate/advanced L2-learners 185
3.6 Results of the beginner learners 191
3.7 Effects of other variables on article choice 192
4 Discussion 193
4.1 Specificity and definiteness 193
4.2 Degree of speaker knowledge 195
4.3 The role of certain 198
5 Conclusion 200
Chpater 7 Production Data
1 Background and predictions 201
1.1 Predictions for L2-English article use in production 201
1.2 Written production data and article omission 201
1.3 Determining specificity in production: specific predictions 202
2 Methods 204
2.1 The task 204
2.2 Coding procedure 205
3 Classification scheme 208
3.1 The post-coding procedure 208
3.2 Types of indefinite singular DPs 209
3.3 Types of plural/mass indefinites 213
3.4 Types of definites 214
3.5 Summary and predictions 218
4 Results 219
4.1 Articles in indefinite contexts 219
4.2 Article use in definite contexts 225
5 Discussion 229
5.1 Article use and misuse in production 229
5.2 Article omission in production 231
6 Conclusion 232
Chapter 8 Conclusion
1 Summary 233
2 Alternative explanations 234
2.1 Permanent parameter mis-setting 234
2.2 Disregard of hearer knowledge 236
2.3 Computations of uniqueness 237
2.4 Explicit instruction and strategies 239
2.5 Strategies and use of certain 242
2.6 Frequency 245
3 Conclusion and unanswered questions 245
3.1 Implications for L2-acquisitions 245
3.2 Implications for linguistic theory 246
3.3 Unanswered questions: suggestions for future research 246
Appendix 1: Description of individual L2-learner participants 249
Appendix 2: Elicitation task stimuli 256
Appendix 3: Translation task 290
Appendix 4: Presuppositionality and word order in L2-English 300